Keywords: Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary, Late Cretaceous, dinosaurs, bolide impact, impact theory, volcanic theory, mass extinctions, Field-dynamical Earth Model (FEM), ionizing radiation and extinction
As with all the web pages on the Living Cosmos web site, this web page is a fully referenced work, and is only a portion of the factual, empirical support for the ideas presented. However, these references are not included on this web page, but are included in the book, The Vital Vastness. Because this book is not yet published the full scope and references could not be presented. An attempt will be made to address queries, but not all queries can be answered. The plates that are mentioned in the excerpts are not included, but may be included at a later time. Excerpts are presented here as indented paragraphs, and those lines appearing with quotes are from some of the cited references.
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About 65 million years ago some event took place that wiped out more than half of all life on
Earth. In addition to this mass extinction there was a major face-lift for the Earth as a
planet. The continents were shoved to new locations, and inland seas moved on and off the
continents, as major ridge expansion took place, particularly in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
In the process there was major mountain building, volcanic eruptions, and some places sunk
beneath the sea, while others rose from the sea. There is evidence of massive destabilization
of the oceans and atmosphere. Powerful storms wrecked havoc as indicated by vigorous erosion
and greatly increased continental weathering. Some elements, known as isotopes, show drastic
shifts in abundance. Masses of sand, clay, and mud deposited layers everywhere, while other
areas show missing sedimentary layers. The oceans show rapid desalination events, temperature
transitions, and chemical changes.
The Late Cretaceous was the last for the dinosaur, and its close was the most catastrophic of
any period in the history of life on Earth. More than one half of all the species on Earth
became extinct. In some places 75% to 90% of the life forms vanished from the scene never to be
seen again in the fossil record. With the close of the Cretaceous there
came the wholesale extinction of large marine creatures (Plesiosaurs, Mosasaurs and Icthyosaurs),
flying reptiles (Pterosaurs), ancestors of the Chambered Nautilus (Ammonites), Scleractinian
and Hermatypic Corals, shellfish (Bivalves, Inoceramids, Rudists, Gastropods and Echnoids),
chalk-forming creatures (Coccolithophorids, Planktonic Foraminifera, Beleminites, large Benthic
Foraminifera and Radiolaria), and the Dinosaurs. Here was the end of one of the most successful
life sytems in all of Earth history. What was it that overwhelmed the Earth?
This theory was suggested because of the high iridium level noted at many locations at the K-T
boundary. The K-T Boundary is the transition point from the Cretaceous, the last time the
dinosaurs lived, to the Tertiary, the time when mammals began to dominate the land. The impact
theory is the most widely held theory of the event that closed the Cretaceous. There are many
facts that support this theory. However, unlike the media has been pushing, there are many
facts that contradict this theory, and indicate something else has to be responsible, if not
completely, then at least partially.
Facts Supporting the Impact Theory
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The impact theory has been debated with a scenario of huge volcanic eruptions. Like the impact
theory, the volcanic event could have brought about drastic weather changes that included a
darkened sky, climatic cooling and acid rain. Both iridium and shocked minerals can be caused
by volcanic eruptions. Furthermore, the hot lava could cause widespread wildfires.
Near the end of the Cretaceous, India had vast lava flows, known as the Deccan Traps. These
lava flows covered an area the size of France. The Deccan Traps were the outcome of the largest
volcanic catastrophe since the beginning of the Mesozoic.
Areas in the Pacific Basin, northeastern Asia, Peru, and the Western Interior of North America
also had a fairly high level of volcanic eruptions. However, volcanic activity had already been
spent by the end of the Cretaceous. Eruptions in Britain (British Igneous Tertiary Province),
Baffin Island, Canada, and northern and western Greenland began shortly after the end of the
Cretaceous.
In some ways the volcanic theory can explain many of the facts that the impact theory cannot.
There are a number of iridium peaks with irregular distribution, which can be explained by the
fact that the eruptions covered a longer time-span than an impact. It may also account for
some of the selective extinctions.
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A number of other theories have been proposed over the years but most have since been discarded
by the scientific community. In most cases these theories mostly focus on what could have
caused the dinosaurs' extinction, but little is devoted to the other extinctions and the
massive environmental changes of the boundary. All but one of these theories fails to explain
the selective character of the extinctions in terms of the species involved, and none can
explain their geographic segregation.
One theory suggests that various terrestrial stresses, including lower sea level, global
temperature changes, and increased volcanic activity, were responsible. Contradicting this
scenario is the fact that these events occurred over a greater time span, and equally dramatic
changes at others times did not coexist with mass extinctions of such magnitude.
Another theory that continually reappears and can explain the selective character of the
extinctions involves radiation. This theory continually reappears because there is evidence of
its effects in the fossil record. For example, Upper Cretaceous fossils from Nemegt Valley,
Mongolia, had greater radioactivity levels than fossils of upper and lower strata in the same
location. Many fossils suggest the effects of radiation, such as mummified dinosaurs, fossilized
delicate dinosaur embryos, and pine cones without any signs of predation, decay, or the effects
of insects, scavengers or decomposers. Even preserved amino acids may have been discovered,
though there is a debate that amino acids could not survive such an extended time period, but if
they were buried and the environment irradiated they could survive.
A generally overlooked fact is that mass extinctions are eventually followed by mass speciations,
not just during this event, but throughout evolutionary history. Again, this suggests radiation.
According to molecular evolution, radiation could split chromosomes, and through the effects of
recombination, crossing-over, and aberrations, as well as RNA and DNA mutation, they would be
shifted into a different order, hence new species (or in the case of extinction, radiation
poisoning or unworkable mutation). Furthermore, research over the past 80 years has shown that
nothing is more capable of causing genetic mutation than radiation. This could explain many
other facts.
The big problem for the radiation theory is that there is no confirmed source for the radiation.
Theories have suggested a nearby supernova (exploding star), a super solar flare, and a super
solar flare during a magnetic reversal. However, a supernova would leave behind a molecular
cloud (nebula), but none has been detected in a region near Earth. The super solar flare would
not cause a major problem as the Earth's atmosphere and magnetosphere (a magnetic sphere
around the Earth resulting from the effects of the geomagnetic field) would deflect the flare.
When a super solar flare occurs along with a magnetic reversal, the magnetosphere no longer
being protective, the possibility looks promising. However, no known such event has occurred
to compare it to. Or is there some other source for the radiation that is yet unknown?
Another finding that is still unresolved is that cratering occurs in cycles or periods of about
30 million years. After examining craters of known age (within 5 million years) the record of
cratering shows clusters or cycles. In order to explain this a companion star to our Sun, with
an elliptical orbit and a period of 30 million years, that dislodges comets from the Oort cloud
was hypothesized. This companion may be to faint or dark for us to see. Another suggestion was
that it is a tenth planet, the so-called Planet X, that dislodges the comets from the Oort cloud.
Others say that it is an intraterrestrial phenomena, rather than extraterrestrial. Others
claim there are no cycles, but statistical analysis does not disprove that cycles exist, but
does indicate that they are highly probable. Today the subject has been somewhat ignored and
remains unresolved by the majority of the scientific community.
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The Vital Vastness offers an explanation of what really took place at
this time by presenting a new model of the Earth, called the Field-dynamical Earth Model (FEM) (use the
link for a description of this model). An understanding of this model would have led to
predicting the evidence that was discovered. In fact, it turns out that this theory is the only
theory to encompass all of the empirical evidence. Here are some excerpts from the book on the
subject (also see the related topic on the
evolution web page).
However, unlike the other theories, the effects of FEM account for all
of the observations. For one, the Fields interact with the Earth's surface, bringing into being
the mid-ocean ridges, rifts and so on (plate boundaries), and are the mechanism behind plate
tectonics and plate motion. This was discussed briefly in Tome One, and will be addressed
more in depth in a later section of Tome Three. Polar reversals become as easy to understand as
reversing the direction of the coil on an electromagnet (reversed polarity of the Field, not
core-mantle coupling offsetting the dynamo; see Tome Five of volume Two). The mid-latitude
Fields release great masses of ionized particles, which results in first producing shocked
quartz, dust and spherules, and immediately following, strewn iridium. These features appear
globally because the Fields are worldwide. The ionizing radiation (by-products of hydrogen
fusion) that is released by the Fields causes huge climate and ocean disturbances, offsets
element balances (carbon, oxygen and other isotopes), starts wildfires (microwaves drying
vegetation and lightning igniting them) and precipitates carbon (soot) and hydrocarbons,
produces acid rain, and has selective effects on extinction and brings into being new species
(genetic mutation).
As a result of various observations, a number of theories have been proposed that included the
effects of ionizing radiation. One theory claimed that a nearby exploding star, a supernova,
was the culprit. Another was a super solar flare.
Both finds are seriously questioned by scientists because protein is normally incapable of
surviving such a long time. However, irradiated amino acids could be preserved, but are not
even being considered. Today there are meats and other foods preserved by irradiating them,
because the radiation destroys decomposers.
The Polish-Mongolian Paleontological Expedition discovered a number of interesting finds.
Upper Cretaceous dinosaur and turtle bones from Nemegt Valley were unearthed that exhibited
high radioactivity. A scientist comments on them by comparing these fossils with those of the
period following the Cretaceous, known as the Paleocene:
"It is, however, interesting that the radioactivity of the bones from Tsagan Hushu in
Nemegt Valley is approximately seven times higher in Cretaceous specimens than in the younger
Paleocene bones collected in the same area. This indicates that not only the locality of
deposition of the bones but also the age of fossils influences their levels of
radioactivity."
In August of 1971, this expedition, while in the Gobi Desert, uncovered the skeletons of two
dinosaurs, Veliciropator and Protoceratops, still locked in mortal combat. Something very
sudden had to overcome them or obviously both would have defended themselves against a common
threat. Furthermore, both had their backs arched as if something had severely cramped their
back muscles. Radiation affects high atomic-number elements more. The most abundant high
atomic-number elements in biological organisms are calcium and potassium. These two elements
are utilized in muscle function, and ionizing radiation may have caused extreme cramping of
their muscles, arching their backs. Some have claimed that the tendons tighten after death
producing this arching. Regardless, something had to overwhelm these dinosaurs very quickly
in order for them to still be locked in combat.
A number of fossils show high levels of radioactivity, especially if made up of bones rather
than some other material (calcium is a high atomic-number element). Fish bones can be
considered an exception due to the radiation-buffering effects of water (not necessarily
uranium-rich percolating groundwater and fine-grained sediments as proposed). Likewise,
uranium-bearing bones may be due to an irradiated environment, which the animals lived in before
their final extinction. This conclusion is suggested when one considers that those dinosaurs
which show greater diversity -- skull mutation -- (Ceratopsians and Hadrosaurs) and
surface-dwelling, air-breathing marine creatures (Plesiosaurs and Mosasaurs) dominate
the samples of uranium-bearing bones.
A number of dinosaur embryos have been discovered. It is very difficult to imagine the
preservation of such delicate specimens under normal conditions, but it could be expected of
irradiated specimens. Though not a popular theory, it has already been suggested that the
presence of high concentrations of radioactive minerals in fossil bones of Late Cretaceous age
were the result of a simultaneous increase in background radiation. Fluctuations in the
deposition of calcium carbonate (chalk), calcite and carbon dioxide (carbonates), and in the
levels of isotopes are also indicative of ionizing radiation. Likewise, there are a large
number of carbonatite deposits around the world at the time of the boundary. The origin of
carbonatites, transformed sediments of calcium carbonate rocks (calcite and dolomite), is
obscure, and could be the result of irradiated reefs and corals. The selectivity of the
extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous also shows the effects of radiation released by FEM and
will be discussed later.
Because the Fields control plate tectonics there should also be a correlation between seafloor
spreading, sea level fluctuations and extinctions. The K/T boundary corresponds to a short-term
maximum in sea level (eustatic transgressions), which supports the idea that the extinctions and
a pulse of seafloor spreading took place at the same time. Further support for this correlation
is that other times of mass extinction are associated with sea level changes, as well.
If the Fields were situated as they are today, in the oceans, we would expect evidence of highly
disturbed oceans in the late Cretaceous. Studies indicate rapid water stratification,
ventilation and temperature changes. Dark sediments (laminated, organic-rich shales) were
deposited on a base of high organic carbon that is known to have originated from the open ocean
(pelagic). A number of different sets of data indicate massive destabilization of the ocean to
an unusual magnitude. Rapid fluctuations in isotopic marine deposits reflect catastrophic
mixing of previously stagnant oceans. Both marine and continental sections demonstrate that the
extinctions were often accompanied by changes in sedimentation that display abrupt coarsening
(clastic wedge). Much of what is recorded at the boundary could be due to a transition from a
Cretaceous equator-dominated to a Tertiary polar-dominated ocean circulation system.
Mid-latitudes were affected the most, and there was an abrupt lowering of the surface salinity
of the world's oceans. Lowered salinity occurred because ionizing radiation, which is a
chemical catalyst (Na, Cl and NaCl have high ionization potentials, especially in aqueous
solutions), was released through the Fields in the oceans. All of these observations support
what would be expected of FEM.
The Fields control weather and the evidence demonstrates massive changes there too. Giant
storms left behind the signs of dramatically increased erosion and runoff. Likewise, the
sedimentary, biological and geochemical data suggest massive destabilization of the climate.
The end-Cretaceous has even been compared to what would follow an instantaneous discharge of
more than the world's nuclear weapons stockpile. Both the Fields and nuclear weapons release a
similar type of ionizing radiation into the atmosphere. In fact, it was the scientific study of
the K/T Boundary that led to the nuclear winter scenario, which essentially has the same
climatic effects. Intense, sustained ionization events, whether nuclear, cosmic, solar or FEM,
cause a global weather impact.
Nitric oxide is produced as a by-product of ionization, and it depletes the ozone layer,
allowing solar and cosmic radiation to enter with additional mutagenic potential. Furthermore,
the nitric oxide would undergo chemical reactions that produce nitric acid, resulting in acid
rain. At the close of the Cretaceous the evidence indicates a sudden and sharp drop in
temperature, as well as acid rain, which could be predicted from the effects of FEM.
Clay mineral associations reveal a "major geodynamic disruption" characterized by
tectonic instability and sea-level changes. These events occurred prior to the boundary and the
iridium excess. On the Walvis Ridge an abundance of a mineral (illite) indicates active uplift
and erosion. The Maud Rise and Walvis Ridge display sediments associated with volcanic activity
(smectite). A number of sections show deeply weathered soils indicative of a highly
destabilized climate (detrital kaolinite).
Due to ionizing radiation we could also expect elements normally suspended in the atmosphere to
be affected. A major carbon-isotope event (depleted 12C and enhanced 13C)
occurred at the boundary, followed by a negative excursion at the very earliest of the next
period (early Paleocene). Radiation increases the production of carbon isotopes in both the
environment and biological materials, and this took place. Moreover, a shift to lighter organic
carbon isotopes was found in marine sediments from the south Atlantic, Israel, Tunisia, and the
north Pacific. Carbon isotope shifts such as these suggest biological productivity was
depressed following the boundary.
Along with the extinction and sedimentary (biostratigraphic and stratigraphic) layers there are
ash falls, soot and variations in the production of organic carbon. It has been suggested that
this carbon fluctuation was the result of wildfires caused by an asteroid's fireball or by
India's volcanics, but neither is capable of producing a global distribution. Reentering
ejecta would produce heat radiation, but at the lower limit for igniting solid wood. However,
it could dry the vegetation and lightning could then start the wildfire. Some sites do not have
the evidence expected from a global fire, and have hydrocarbon (petroleum-like) characteristics.
They display a distribution that reflects FEM; for instance, high levels are noted in New
Zealand (East Australian Field) and Denmark (North Polar Field), not Italy (not near any Field).
Furthermore, carbon studies contradict the hypothesis that the carbon originated from a giant
forest fire and are not typical of extraterrestrial material, but are like earthly types.
Atmospheric carbon and hydrocarbon precipitation, and wildfires occur after the Earth is
affected by ionizing radiation, as for example during a nuclear explosion. Hydrogen and carbon
combine into substances similar to petroleum, called hydrocarbons, which could ignite, producing
other constituents of the K/T-boundary layer (spherules, soot and wildfires). Derivation of
the soot from fuel burning could not be ruled out by isotopic and other data. The particle size
distribution of the soot is, again, similar to a nuclear winter smoke cloud. Specific
hydrocarbon compounds (polyaromatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) in the soot are the
only indication that it is strictly wildfires (organic source), but the evidence is inconclusive.
However, these hydrocarbons, too, can be produced by an irradiated atmosphere (due to the
polymerization of methane in the atmosphere).
There is 300 times more charcoal above the boundary than in it, indicating a prolonged
production. Increased charcoal production can result from either an increase or decrease in
atmospheric oxygen (O2), due to either increased ignition or less efficient
combustion. An ionized atmosphere would result in less atmospheric oxygen (O2).
The correlation of carbon with noble metals and other constituents of the boundary may simply be
due to fuel combustion (coal and/or hydrocarbons) and plant ash. Therefore, an impact(s) and/or
volcanic eruption(s) are not necessary even for these constituents.
An event that first dries the vegetation is necessary for the global extent of the wildfires.
A very effective agent for drying vegetation is microwaves, which could be produced by ionizing
radiation reacting with the atmosphere and lightning (whistlers). These conditions would be
present as the result of the dynamics of FEM. An unusual negative excursion of oxygen isotopes
(18O) occurs at, or shortly after, the boundary, which could be produced by ionizing
radiation. All of these observed effects and their global distribution are readily explainable
by FEM with its worldwide distribution of ionizing radiation. Further conformation of this is
the fact that the composition of the iridium in the boundary is more like the manganese nodules
of a seabed. Every fact compels us to accept FEM as the Earth model, while the other theories
are inconsistent with the full range of facts.
Even polar wander, apparent in the Pacific Plate from the mid-Cretaceous to early Tertiary,
suggests FEM. The path indicates an uneven, rapid polar wander with a sharp bend occurring at
the end of the Cretaceous (Normal Polarity Superchron). This observation can be explained by
"time-varying non-dipole geomagnetic fields" which vary significantly with time. The
Fields are time-varying, which would resolve the polar wander record, because polar wander
sometimes occurs very rapidly (see the discussions in Tome Five of Volume Two on polar reversals
and wandering).
Mass extinctions and evolution with their nonrandom patterns and "missing links" can
easily be understood, as well. Mass extinctions are now known to be very selective, and are not
related to an organism's ability to survive. Furthermore, it is the organisms proven to be very
capable of adaptation, which have been around the longest (older families), that typically
disappear at such times.
Meanwhile, it has long been recognized that small changes at the genetic level can cause
extinctions and produce new species. One theorist called them "hopeful monsters,"
because many of the same species could have similar mutants and still be capable of reproduction.
More than three-quarters of a century in genetic research has shown that the most consistent and
efficient means of mutation producing new species or subspecies is at the genetic level. Of
all the possible ways available for producing genetic mutations (including chromosome
aberrations, crossing-over and recombining, and DNA and RNA mutation) none is more pervasive,
uniform and perpetuating than the effects produced by ionizing radiation. Chromosomes are known
to break and then recombine, producing a totally new organism, while the original organism
becomes "extinct."
A scientist looking into the process of evolution indicates genetic changes that alter
development are responsible for the transitions observed: "Indeed, if we do not invoke
discontinuous change by small alteration in rates of development, I do not see how most major
evolutionary transitions can be accomplished at all." This is why patterns of mutation are
not random and are reflected in what has been called "evolutionary divergence," or
diversity in types of species. It is uniform rates of change at the genetic level that bring
about the patterns observed. Ionizing radiation is ideal for this very thing.
Animal tissues that contain elements with a fairly high atomic number, such as calcium, absorb
more radiation than do soft tissues composed of less dense material. As a result, extinctions
should show a relationship with organisms composed of greater amounts of the denser elements.
Calcium-bearing (calcareous) plankton, shellfish, corals, open nest egg-laying animals, and
animals with large skeletons would be prime candidates for mass extinction. Testimony of this
relationship is witnessed throughout the K/T boundary region of the fossil record, as well as
other times of mass extinction.
Cretaceous marine extinctions offer a compelling example of the effects of ionizing radiation.
Calcium-bearing, floating and drifting aquatic organisms (calcareous plankton: foraminifera and
coccolithophorids) were the most deeply affected with widespread mass extinctions. In fact, so
widespread were they that this was the first compelling evidence that led geologists to admit a
catastrophe had occurred.
Larger cells are affected more by radiation, and even among these aquatic organisms, the smaller
ones (coccolithophorids or nannoplankton) became extinct later. A section from Late Cretaceous
(Maestrichitian) deposits in Alabama containing these fossils was examined by scientists who
concluded that they were affected by an increase of radiation. Other marine organisms that
became extinct were calcium-bearing shellfish and reef-builders (Ammonites, Inoceramids,
Beleminites, Rudists, Gastropods, Echnoids, Radiolaria, Crinoids, Brachiopods, and Hermatypic
and Scleractinian corals). Of these organisms it was the larger, surface types that experienced
extinctions, often before the final episode (Late Cretaceous). The reason that surface-dwelling
types were more readily affected is that water, especially salty water, is a good neutralizer or
buffer against radiation. As a result, the deeper water (benthic) organisms were not affected
much and if they were it was because they were large, calcium-bearing and immobile, bottom
dwellers (sessile benthic). These deep-water types were typically those that could be found in
the region of a Field where the ocean and sediment were severely disturbed.
Shallow water types were the first to become extinct with a peak (in calcite dissolution) at the
time of the iridium. For instance, Ammonites, relatives of the Chambered Nautilus, assume
distorted shapes by uncurling and twisting their otherwise spiraling shells in late formations.
Genera is a group of a given organism that is comprised of many species, and of the 34 genera of
shellfish, Ammonites, none survived. Likewise, it was the organisms with a narrow range of
adaptability to environmental change (stenotypic) that were more deeply affected than those with
a wide range and a global distribution (eurytopic).
Bony fish are more readily affected, showing more extinctions than other fish (from 185 to 39
genera in marine types). Changes in deep ocean circulation (causing fluctuations in basinal
carbonate compensation surfaces prior to and following the K/T boundary) have been postulated as
a cause of marine extinctions, but no real "genetic" link between the two exists.
Also, fluctuations in salinity and oxygen (oxic conditions) can be ruled out, because certain
organisms (bryozoans and specialized crinoids) were at a peak in diversity at the time of their
mass extinction.
Examining dinosaur egg-shells, by measuring their thickness in successive layers of rock,
disclosed certain trends that reflect what would be expected of FEM. Older rock layers show an
acceptable shell thickness (2.5 mm. or 0.1 in.), but near the end of the Cretaceous the shell
thickness reached a drastic fragility (1.0 mm. or 0.04 in.). In one rock face, near Corbieres,
France, eight eggs were so poorly shelled that the embryos could not have utilized enough
calcium to form their skeletons. It has been theorized that these thin shells resulted from the
passage of unusually severe atmospheric cold fronts or by the emergence of toxic substances in
the environment. Some shells are noted to have shells within shells and indicate an offset
hormone system and a sharp increase in mutation. All of these observations can be linked with
the direct effects of ionizing radiation.
Further evidence of calcium-dependent mutation is seen in the late changes that took place in
dinosaur skulls. An exaggeration of the nasal plume in the duckbilled dinosaur (Parasaurolophus)
and a bizarre solid-bone domed skull of others (Pachycephalosaurus and Saurolophus) make their
appearance at the close of the Cretaceous. The bony frill behind the skull of another dinosaur
(Triceratops) underwent abnormal development. In fact, each formation at the close of the
Cretaceous houses a totally distinctive skeleton of dinosaurs related to this one (Ceratopsians)
that cannot be found earlier. The Beaked or Duckbilled Dinosaur (Hadrosaurs) had a skull which
bore an ornate crest rising from the crown of its head like a top hat. Some had huge bony
crests that are either solid or may have contained hollow nasal passages. So well preserved
were these fossils that descriptions of stomach contents, including the composition of a last
meal, were possible. In fact, the Duckbilled Dinosaur (Hadrosaur), the "mummy" fossil
discussed earlier, and others (Ceratopsians) are among the samples of uranium-bearing and
radioactive bones. In North America there is the accelerated evolution of another dinosaur
(Kristosaurus) that became flat-headed. So prevalent were these new species that one could
easily wonder if they were merely mutants, while some scientists saw this divergence as evidence
of racial senility and a possible cause of the dinosaurs' demise (see Figure 2).
More body surface area, or a greater cell or chromosome size, permits more radiation to be
absorbed. Every land animal (terrestrial vertebrate) with a body weight of 25 kilograms (55
lbs.) or more became extinct (with the exception of some which will be discussed). One of the
leading authorities on dinosaurs comments on this: "The dinosaurian extinctions would seem
to be in conformity with an increase in background radiation." This is why dinosaurs and
large marine surface feeding animals (Plesiosaurs, Mosasaurs and Ichthyosaurs) had no general
decline prior to a fairly abrupt extinction (at Maestrichitian-Danian Boundary). The young did
not survive because the offspring of irradiated parents are experimentally known to be the most
affected. Skeletal mutations, such as the abnormal skulls observed, are typical of the dominant
mutations induced in experiments with ionizing radiation.
Gastroliths, the stones used by dinosaurs to aid digestion, can be found scattered about in rock
layers, but not in the animals' stomach region had they merely collapsed and perished.
Radiation causes a sickness which leads to vomiting, and this is the evidence of that sickness.
The presence of ionizing radiation explains all of the observations.
Severe climatic deterioration can be ruled out as a cause of these highly selective extinctions.
Animals very sensitive to cold survived the boundary event. More elaborate explanations than
either climatic deterioration or impact are therefore necessary to accurately interpret the
evidence.
Extinctions of land plants also indicate what could be predicted from the effects of radiation.
A gradual change for land plants took place, not a catastrophic mass extinction. Flowering land
plants (Angiosperms) reach a peak in the number of species at or near the end of the Cretaceous
(K/T boundary), and the change at that time is relatively minor. Plants are far less susceptible
to short-term radiation (by a factor of ten compared to animals), and are even less sensitive to
long-term (chronic) exposure. This is also why cycles of extinctions in plants are much less
defined than for other organisms. Seeds are even more resistant than the parent plants,
especially if protected by soil, low cover or soot. In fact, the earliest fossil record of seed
dormancy is an exceptionally well-preserved specimen with no signs of insect damage. Typical of
irradiated plants, these fossils offer evidence for the presence of ionizing radiation.
A brief dominance of ferns after the iridium layer is restricted to western North America and
eastern Asia. Ferns' shoots (i.e., meristems) are at or below the ground surface, and may
therefore be partially or completely shielded. Furthermore, spores, smaller than most seeds,
would absorb less radiation, and the fossil record shows that seed-ferns became extinct while
spore types did not. Pines are the most sensitive to radiation and many species of pine became
extinct. The larger plants and those with larger chromosomes, such as broad-leaved forests,
were affected the most, again reflecting the known effects of radiation.
Although many types (taxa) of land plants became extinct, the total change was much less
dramatic than the other organisms experiencing mass extinctions (marine phytoplankton, dinosaurs,
etc.). Fossil evidence shows that plant life was devastated, and then returns with only some
genera and species becoming extinguished. Radiation is known to cause the inhibition of seed
germination, but does not prevent it. In contrast, all of the evidence exhibits a scenario that
was not the type of catastrophe one could attribute to asteroid or comet impacts, or volcanic
eruptions.
The boundary in North America suggests a sudden and traumatic vegetation disturbance, and a
profound and long-lasting climate change. The selective extinction of broad-leaved evergreen
species transpired. Broad-leaved evergreen species are the most radiation sensitive of all
plants. Typical of FEM, there was a long-term restructuring of vegetation that is expressed
most strongly at the mid and low northern latitudes. Aberrant angiosperm pollen grains occur
several meters above the boundary, suggesting a prolonged period of stress. Again, this
suggests the type of response noted in studies of the effects of radiation on plants. A
different sequence of events occurred in western Canada between the 60o and
75o North Latitudes (the confluence of the mid-latitude and polar fields) that cannot
be explained by the impact scenario.
The expansion of the range of broad-leaved deciduous forests in the following (Paleocene) period
is said to be due to increased genetic diversity and the development of dormancy, which would
have increased the survival rate. A minor vegetational disturbance in the Southern Hemisphere
argues strongly against a simultaneous global conflagration of the impact scenario. The
volcanic scenario is also inadequate for explaining the evidence. A scientist reviewing the
evidence of plant extinctions comes to this conclusion: "Existing scenarios are clearly
inadequate to explain all the patterns of regional extinction, survivorship and ecological
restructuring that took place at the end of the Cretaceous."
Other extinctions show the selective nature of ionizing radiation. Freshwater amphibians, such
as crocodiles and turtles, show almost no change even when in excess of the 25 kilogram (55 lbs.)
weight. This is because water is a good buffer against radiation, and mud, which they lay their
eggs in, is particularly so. Mammals with placentas, which are protective, show much less
extinction than those with pouches that the fetus must climb into in order to fully develop
(marsupials). Of the freshwater organisms it is calcium-bearing bony fish and fish with
cartilage (with calcium-salts in association) that show some extinctions. No other theory has
accounted nor can account for such selectivity in the extinctions. A scientist comments:
"The high selectivity of terminal Cretaceous extinctions implies that, whatever the nature
of the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary events, their effects on the various groups of living beings
were not uniform. This is obviously not in good agreement with hypotheses which involve
tremendously violent and devastating events; such catastrophes would not have been very
selective in their consequences on the living communities. It thus seems that more complex
factors than mere body size or resistance to cold are involved, and that the very variety of the
groups that survived calls for a more elaborate explanation."
The remainder of observations account for the lingering effects of radiation on a much shorter
time scale than hypothesized. Foods that are irradiated would persist beyond the effects of
initial radiation doses. This would lead first to initial effects followed by secondary effects.
Organisms most susceptible to the primary presence of radiation would metabolize the radiation,
becoming extinct (calcium-bearing photosynthetic plankton), or they would pass the radiation on
(plants). This is why we see a progressive wave of extinction from primary consumers to large
consumers (lower to higher trophic levels). Likewise, primary producers are the least affected
by radiation, followed by those that consume plants (herbivores), and finally by those that
consume animals (carnivores). First, radioactive materials end up in basic food sources and are
then transferred through food, air and water to animals. This is the reason for the observed
steps in mass extinctions and the progressive wave. Also resolved is the fact that there is no
randomness to the extinctions as occurs at other (background) times when there are no mass
extinctions. Furthermore, the sets of extinctions do not occur at the same time. The largest
animals, as for example the dinosaurs, undergo both initial effects and latent effects, leading
to the present debate that their extinction was gradual or instantaneous. The fossil evidence
is also geographically segregated in a way that would be predicted of FEM, as the extinctions
occurred more along the mid-latitudes.
Here is the mechanism that is responsible for bringing about new species, as well. Ionizing
radiation released by the Earth includes the by-products of hydrogen fusion: protons and
neutrons (electrons are utilized in the Fields). Gamma rays and X-rays are routinely produced
by particle accelerators, or the Fields in the case of FEM, because the Fields are particle
accelerators. All of these particles are the most effective mutagens known for both plants and
animals.
The primary results of more than three-quarters of a century of research is that the gene is the
physical basis of heredity and function, and that mutation is the ultimate source of variability.
Ionizing radiation not only causes genes to mutate, but also breaks chromosomes, causing them
to recombine in a different order or split them. When two chromosomes break in the same nucleus
it sometimes happens that the broken ends join together and the order of the genetic information
is changed. Some organisms carrying such genetic coding may be capable of giving rise to an
adult individual whose germ cells lack the normal chromosomal complement, and incapable of full
development, it perishes. For this reason, we see a greater diversity of species near the end
of the Cretaceous before the final extinction. Other groups irradiated with similar doses and
undergoing chromosome recombination could lead to new organisms capable of reproducing, hence
new species (eventually new genera and families). This is the process behind what has been
called evolution, and mechanisms at the molecular level were discussed in the previous chapter.
Other conditions operating during times of mass extinction and the origins of new species have
genetic influence. The Fields emit pulsed radio frequencies, especially during times of
increased activity. Pulsed radio-frequency fields have also been shown to alter chromosomes.
Ionization of the atmosphere would definitely produce static electricity, producing
electrostatic fields. Chromosome breaks and translocations are generated by electrostatic
fields. Furthermore, there is evidence that a reduction in strength, or a reversal, of the
Earth's magnetic field is capable of influencing the restructuring of genetic material. Those
studying paleomagnetism find that the geomagnetic field strength is about 25% of normal during
reversals, which often occur during times of mass extinction. So the process behind evolution
involves ionizing radiation, and radio-frequency and electrostatic fields, as well as reduced
strength and/or reversal of the Earth's magnetic field (more detail was given in sections of
Tome Two).
Most scientists admit that the evolutionary theory proposed by Darwin and maintained by geology
for about a century is deficient when examining the fossil record. In fact, Darwin made three
mistakes that have influenced perceptions, not only in geology and biology, but in our society
as a worldwide whole. Those mistakes were that he: (1) denied mass extinctions by claiming
they were merely the result of an imperfect geological record; (2) assumed that species
diversity tends to increase (exponentially) with time, much like one reproducing pair would
gain more and more relatives; and (3) that natural selection (competition) or "survival of
the fittest" was the major cause of extinction. The fossil record indicates that these
three assumptions are seriously in error, yet they have controlled much of our scientific
and social thinking for at least a century. Hence, there has been a call for a new evolutionary
synthesis.
Fossils, however, display the type of record that could be predicted from sudden genetic
mutation. Such is the case with flowering plants, called Angiosperms, who make a sudden
appearance in the Cretaceous. A specialist studying these plants remarks: "The ancestral
group that gave rise to Angiosperms has not yet been identified in the fossil record, and no
living Angiosperm points to such an ancestral alliance. In addition, the record has shed almost
no light on relations between taxa at ordinal and family level."
Darwin had thought that the sudden emergence of higher plants was the most extraordinary event
to take place in the Plant Kingdom. Though the above quote was made more than three decades
ago, today it remains an essentially unsolved problem after a century-long look at the fossil
record. Today the best theories are argued from hypothetical linkages, and at best there is
only a very superficial resemblance.
The first fossils were noted in Brazil, then Israel, and worldwide near the end of the
Cretaceous. Yet, during that time, sea level was high and no land bridges existed, while many
continents were separated by inland seas or oceans. If we are not to totally dismiss the
fossil record of inland seas, and the history of plate tectonics, we are left with the enigma
of worldwide distribution, as well as origins. Genetic mutation caused by similar levels of
ionizing radiation (and other factors) occurring worldwide with some original parent stock
already worldwide, mutated into a new worldwide species, appears to be the only possible answer.
Probably it was seed-fern fronds mutating into Angiosperm-like leaves, and maybe primitive
leaves and pollen undergoing parallel evolution. Molecular evidence points to a possible
(Permo-Triassic) origin at an extinction boundary. Certain characteristics of angiosperms
(stratified meristems) promote long-term retention of many categories of (somatic) mutation.
Further implicating FEM is the fact that the first prominence of angiosperms was around the
mid-latitudes.
This is also why we observe that some species (Aquilapollenites and Proteacidites) became
extinct at the end of the Cretaceous. However, the extinctions are not the catastrophic type
expected from impact theory or volcanics. They are complex and demonstrate unique occurrences
even within the same continent. According to FEM we should see distinct changes between western
Canada and the western United States that divide along the 40o latitude, and this has
been demonstrated!
In light of this scenario, consider this statement made by a specialist studying the effect of
radiation on plants: "Ionizing radiation is generally thought to have played a very minor
role among the selective processes of evolution. It is somewhat surprising therefore that the
effects of radiation on natural communities follow predictable patterns apparently related to
the evolution of life." Developmental processes are reasonably similar at the genetic
level in all flowering plants (Angiosperm ontogeny). First, similar development (ontogeny)
occurs, then unique development. A scientist well versed in radiation-induced mutations in
plants says that such a process can "account for the evolution of plant diversity."
Ionizing radiation remains the most successful way of breeding new plants.
This is the main reason we witness an upsurge in species diversity in the following (Tertiary)
period when many of the modern families and genera appear. The end of the Cretaceous
(Maestrichtian) is dominated by genera that occur in recent plants, but earlier it is dominated
by extinct genera. At the end of the Cretaceous (K/T boundary) we observe a mass mortality of
plants followed by a succession that leads to a new dominant type (Gymnosperms). Studying the
end of the Cretaceous (K/T boundary) in New Mexico and Colorado shows some Laurels (three-lobed
members) drastically reduced, and then they disappear. In North Dakota and Montana a forest of
broad-leaved trees and shrubs was replaced by another very different forest. Only 10% of 32
new types of classifications, known as taxa, survived and 30 taxa appear to replace them at the
end of the Cretaceous (K/T boundary). The scientist studying these changes comments: "Each
of these forests would be completely different. You wouldn't recognize the new from seeing the
old." Such an effect is by no means restricted to plants.
When other fossil evidence is examined, similar patterns are observed. A rapid diversification
of most surviving organisms transpires in the beginning of the next period. The K/T boundary is
the label used for the geological and palentological remains of the event that took place
between the Cretaceous (K) and the following period, the Tertiary (T). Within a narrow interval
of the K/T Boundary in some marine sections is a peculiar transitional form of calcium-bearing
plankton (foraminifera). Freshwater amphibians and reptiles, along with land (terrestrial)
snails and mammals increase in the number of genera. In fact, so much did mammals begin to
prosper that the following period (Tertiary) is often referred to as the Age of Mammals.
Such is the case throughout the fossil record. A statement by one scientist, in a book titled
Evolution: A Theory in Crisis, tells the tale:
"It is one of the most striking features of the fossil record that most new kinds of
organisms appear abruptly. The fossils have not only failed to yield the host of transitional
forms demanded by evolution theory, but because nearly all extinct species and groups revealed
by paleontology are quite distinct and isolated as they burst into the record, then the number
of hypothetical connecting links to join its diverse branches is necessarily greatly
increased."
Of course, what is being referred to is evolutionary theory as proposed by Darwin, and
maintained by biology and geology for over a century. However, the situation is beginning to
change as the labels indicate: NeoDarwinism, molecular evolution, and molecular biology.
Genetic mutation, as caused by ionizing radiation, requires gaps between different types of
organisms. That fact is also why the development of an organism from an embryo to a complete
organism (ontogeny) reflects what might be considered evolutionary steps. Encoded in the genes
are all the previous mutations created by periods of ionizing radiation throughout its
evolutionary history (phylogeny). This is also why evolutionary changes occur in steps and
cycles or are periodic, and are not random.
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Depending on the direction (polarity) of the Sun's Interplanetary Magnetic Field, or IMF, the
Earth's magnetic field either reverses (IMF of opposite polarity), or wanders to a different
location (same polarity). This will be discussed in Tome Five of Volume Two. During the
event that is marked by the K/T boundary the pole reversed.
Particle flow along the other Fields of the Earth induced ridge expansion (electrostatic
repulsion, etc.), causing the continents to rend, buckle and drift (tectonic episodes),
contributing to changes in sea level (eustatic episodes and ridge expansion), while volcanoes
burst forth in titanic eruptions (including mantle plumes). Iridium (terrestrial iridium,
microtektites or tektites) is ejected as the by-products of hydrogen fusion are released. The
Fields shifting also leads to explosive cratering, spewing out shocked minerals (quartz or
feldspar). Consequentially, colossal whirlpools are churned in the oceans, elements in the
environment become altered (isotope fluctuations), and freezing cold moves in (ionization
causing a vacuum, allowing colder upper atmospheric layers to move in). Shallow-water,
calcium-bearing organisms (index fossils), and large or otherwise radiation-vulnerable
organisms became extinct, particularly away from the tropics, as the Fields are situated on the
equatorial bulge pointing away from the tropics. Other creatures emerge from the mutations
created by the altered genetic material that had resulted from the effects of ionizing radiation
and the other factors present (i.e., geomagnetic reversal, electrostatic fields, pulsed radio
frequency fields, microwaves, hydrocarbons, and acid precipitation). Life not only managed to
survive, but new species would rapidly diversify, achieving greater stability in the environment
than ever before.
Such is the scene that can be predicted from an understanding of FEM. In fact, such events
should be periodic or cyclic (time-varying), and capable of explaining the fossil and geological
records. Scientists have discovered that events do occur in cycles or episodes, and the
geologic and fossil records of the events reveal that they took place in the order just
described.
Mass extinctions display the type of geographic distribution attributed to the positions of the
Fields. The Fields are located near coasts, and it is those organisms in the Coastal Plains
Provinces that are the least capable of survival, regardless of whether there were many species
or a few. For the entire Age of Reptiles (Mesozoic), fossil finds of dinosaurs have been
uncovered, for the most part, between the 45o latitudes and around the North Pole,
with the vast majority between 30o and 40o latitudes. While this has much
to do with present-day population distributions in those regions, it cannot be attributed solely
to a selection effect. Drastic temperature drops are also known to occur in the Field regions,
occasionally producing glaciations. In every respect, if ancient (paleo-) geographic data alone
are considered, FEM is essential to the complete interpretation of the evidence (see Tome Two
Chapters 22 and 23).
The latter part of the Cretaceous offers a good example of latitude restrictions generated by
FEM. The most striking feature of the European Late Cretaceous fauna is the dissimilarity
between the northern and southern regions. Northern types have been recognized in England,
Northern France, Germany, the former Soviet Union and Scandinavia, while the southern types were
throughout the Mediterranean Province. This segregation holds true not only for Europe but also
in the Asiatic, African and North American regions.
Other observations disclose this geographic segregation. The irradiated bones discovered in the
Gobi Desert were discovered around the latitudes of the Fields, and the area is one of the
richest provinces for dinosaur fossil finds. Extinction rates in general were greatest in the
mid-latitudes, and least near the equator, particularly for plants. The mid-latitude Fields are
situated above the equatorial bulge and point away from the equator. Especially heavy losses
took place in North Alaska, Canada and Northeastern Siberia, all of which surrounded the
Cretaceous Pole. In Western North America, geographically located just opposite of today's
East Coast during the Cretaceous, extinctions reached 70 to 80 percent. The North Atlantic
Field was situated near Western North America in the Cretaceous, hence the richest fossil region
in North America exists there. When the distribution and size of shocked mineral grains is
considered, it is the North American western interior that displays the most abundant
distribution and maximum size. Unlike the global distribution of marine iridium, the non-marine
iridium has only been found in the western interior of North America. Again, these facts
contradict an impact in the Gulf of Mexico region. The northern mid-latitudes and the western
Northern Hemisphere were more severely affected, which is especially notable for plants. Slower,
more gradual extinctions ensued on Antarctica, and extinctions were less in the higher southern
latitudes and near the equator.
The evidence suggests that a huge burst of solar activity took place and entered the South Pole
(GMF-IMF interactions), and subsequent hydrogen fusion by-products were released through the
remaining Fields, particularly the North Atlantic Field. As a result, the Fields along the
30o to 40o latitudes, pointing away from the equatorial bulge, released
radiation, causing extinctions to peak in the Temperate and North Polar regions, while more
gradual extinctions occurred in the Antarctic region.
A number of facts indicate that the North Atlantic Field was activated the most. For one, there
is the higher abundance and size of the shocked grains in North America. Also, North America
was the continent that moved the most in plate tectonic activity at the close of the Cretaceous.
That is, more particle flow occurred along Field lines whose descending limbs control plate
motion. Plate tectonics will be discussed subsequently. Underwater earthquakes, such as those
caused by sudden Mid-Atlantic ridge expansion, generate tsunamis or "tidal waves." As
could be predicted by this model, evidence shows that a tsunami struck southeastern North
America, as studies in Texas disclosed. The lack of any tsunami-like deposit in the shallower
Braggs, Alabama section indicates that an impact-generated tsunami is out of the question.
Small iridium anomalies for sites from the Cretaceous North American Western Interior Seaway and
northeastern Atlantic have been interpreted as due to volcanic emanations from a very active
mid-Atlantic ridge. Also a sequence (of Mg-rich semctite bearing bentonites) is believed to be
derived from volcanic ash at the boundary in northwestern Europe. The (transgressive) sea
advances onto land in the Cretaceous were closely allied to increased oceanic volcanic activity.
Furthermore, extinctions were more severe on the North American continent, especially along the
30o to 40o latitudes.
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No other theory can explain all of the various observations left behind in the geologic and
fossil records. For a related topic see the web pages on
evolution, and
planetary ejections and cratering.
>
>
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http://www.livingcosmos.com/k-t.htm
Introduction
Theories
Impact Theory
Suddenly an asteroid or a comet pierces the atmosphere, igniting a huge fireball that
lights the sky in a huge blast. Intense blistering heat from the blast ignites rapidly
spreading wildfires. The object smashes into the ocean near a continent, ejecting massive
amounts of dust and water into the atmosphere. Within a short time the dust encircles the
Earth, plunging it into a thick black darkness. Every bit of vegetation withers, followed by a
famine that affected all the animals (except scavengers and decomposers), causing mass
extinctions. With the Sun's rays blocked, an extreme cold eventually envelopes the Earth.
After some time the dust falls, but much of the water still remains aloft, causing a greenhouse
effect that heats the Earth by as much as 10o Celsius (18o Fahrenheit).
Acid plummets to the ground as the energy combined nitrogen and oxygen into nitric acid. So
goes the theory that an asteroid or a comet (collectively referred to as a bolide) hit the Earth
at the close of the Cretaceous.
(from Tome Three of
The Vital Vastness -- Volume One).
Outstanding Problems of the Impact Theory
The Volcanic Theory
Outstanding Problems of the Volcanic Theory
Other Theories
What Really Happened -- Excerpts from The Vital Vastness -- Volume One: Our Living Earth
The most basic reason for the deficiencies of these theories is that the new Earth
model, FEM, is not yet known to scientists. They are only considering the facts based on a
solid iron-nickel core model of the Earth. The present model includes the assumption that the
biosphere is protected from radiation due to the effects of the magnetic field, magnetosphere
and atmosphere. As a result, theorists do not recognize the other possible mechanisms that
could explain the evidence. Even the possibility of ejection from the Earth could create the
crater in Chicxulub [see the web page on
ejection]. This means we are looking in the wrong place when we search for Earth-crossing
asteroids.
Meanwhile, the effects of radiation are clearly manifested in many fossil remains.
Trachodon, a dinosaur discovered in a Kansas rock formation in 1908, can now be found in the
American Museum of Natural History in New York. Mummified, its body remains fairly intact,
shows no signs of predation, and the impression of its skin shows perfect detail, lacking
significant signs of decomposition. Likewise, proteins were found in the bones of one of the
largest dinosaurs known, Seismosaurus or "ground-shaker," and are also the oldest
preserved protein. Considering the possible effects of radiation, one must wonder if
Seismosaurus is such a large dinosaur because of radiation-induced mutation. Other amino acids
were also found in Late Cretaceous fossils.
The Actual Event
In the overall scene we can say that life's abundance had already been greatly
diminished, leading to a life crisis on Earth (loss of biogeoelectrostatic properties). As a
result, the intensity of the Earth's magnetic field became drastically reduced. Then a solar
flare of huge proportions was hurled towards the Earth.
Related News Stories
-- Last Update: October 11, 2011
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Richard Michael Pasichnyk
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